Major extinct Cultural Hearths of the World

Major Extinct of Cultural Hearth:

Chichen Itza(source:wikimedia)

Maya Civilization:

Introduction:

 The ancient Maya civilization was without a doubt, one of the most dominant ancient societies of Mesoamerica. The ancient Maya excelled at agriculture, pottery, hieroglyph writing, calendar-making, mathematics and were one of the most impressive astronomers in the past.

They were a unique and advanced ancient culture and according to studies, the Maya were centered in one geographical block covering all of the Yucatan Peninsula and modern-day Guatemala, Belize and Chiapas and Tabasco in modern day Mexico.

Time:

Mayan culture began to develop in the Pre-Classic period, around 1000 B.C. and was at its heyday between 300 and 900 A.D.

Evolution of Maya culture
Olmec	1200-1000 B.C.
Early Preclassic Maya	1800-900 B.C.
Middle Preclassic Maya	900-300 B.C.
Late Preclassic Maya	300 B.C. - A.D. 250
Early Classic Maya	A.D. 250-600
Late Classic Maya	A.D. 600-900
Post Classic Maya	A.D. 900-1500
Colonial period	A.D. 1500-1800
Independent Mexico	A.D. 1821 to the present

Location:

The Maya civilization was one of the most dominant indigenous societies of Mesoamerica (a term used to describe Mexico and Central America before the 16th century Spanish conquest). Unlike other scattered indigenous populations of Mesoamerica, the Maya were centered in one geographical block covering all of the Yucatan Peninsula and modern-day Guatemala; Belize and parts of the Mexican states of Tabasco and Chiapas; and the western part of Honduras and El Salvador. This concentration showed that the Maya remained relatively secure from invasion by other Mesoamerican peoples.

Within that expanse, the Maya lived in three separate sub-areas with distinct environmental and cultural differences: the northern Maya lowlands on the Yucatan Peninsula; the southern lowlands in the Peten district of northern Guatemala and adjacent portions of Mexico, Belize and western Honduras; and the southern Maya highlands, in the mountainous region of southern Guatemala. Most famously, the Maya of the southern lowland region reached their peak during the Classic Period of Maya civilization (A.D. 250 to 900), and built the great stone cities and monuments that have fascinated explorers and scholars of the region.

Population and settlement planning:

Classic Maya civilization grew to some 40 cities, including Tikal, Uaxactún, Copán, Bonampak, Dos Pilas, Calakmul, Palenque and Río Bec; each city held a population of between 5,000 and 50,000 people. At its peak, the Maya population may have reached 2,000,000.

Mayan cities:

Maya cities were the administrative and ritual centres for regions which included the city itself and an agricultural hinterland.

The largest Maya cities were home to many people. At the major centre of Tikal, for example, within a six-square-mile area, there were over 10,000 individual structures ranging from temple-pyramids to thatched-roof huts. Tikal's population is estimated at up to 60,000, giving it a population density several times greater than an average city in Europe or America at the same period in history.

A Maya city from the Classic Period usually consisted of a series of stepped platforms topped by masonry structures, ranging from great temple-pyramids and palaces to individual house mounds. These structures were in turn arranged around broad plazas or courtyards. At major sites like Tikal, large buildings and complexes might also have been interconnected by stone roads or causeways.

Maya cities were rarely laid out in neat grids, and appear to have developed in an unplanned fashion, with temples and palaces torn down and rebuilt over and over through the centuries. Because of this seemingly erratic pattern of settlement, the boundaries of Maya cities are often hard to determine. Some cities were surrounded by a moat, and some had defensive earthworks around them; however, this was unusual. City walls are rare at Maya sites, with the exception of some recently discovered cities dating from the collapse of Maya civilization, when protective walls were suddenly thrown up around cities under siege from outside enemies.

Urban planning:

Maya sites display evidence of deliberate urban planning and monuments are often laid out on a radial pattern incorporating wide plazas. Topography usually determined where larger buildings were constructed - see, for example, Palenque where use was made of natural rock rises - but they could also be connected via elevated and stuccoed roadways (bajos) within a single sacred complex. Buildings themselves were oriented along, for example, a north-south axis, and were so positioned to take advantage of solar and other celestial events or sight lines. Buildings might also be sited to take advantage of natural panoramas or even mimic the view itself such as in the ballcourt at Copan.

                                                              

Religion:

The Maya were deeply religious, and worshiped various gods related to nature, including the gods of the sun, the moon, rain and corn. At the top of Maya society were the kings, or “kuhul ajaw” (holy lords), who claimed to be related to gods and followed a hereditary succession. They were thought to serve as mediators between the gods and people on earth, and performed the elaborate religious ceremonies and rituals so important to the Maya culture.

The Classic Maya built many of their temples and palaces in a stepped pyramid shape, decorating them with elaborate reliefs and inscriptions. These structures have earned the Maya their reputation as the great artists of Mesoamerica. Guided by their religious ritual, the Maya also made significant advances in mathematics and astronomy, including the use of the zero and the development of a complex calendar system based on 365 days. Though early researchers concluded that the Maya were a peaceful society of priests and scribes, later evidence–including a thorough examination of the artwork and inscriptions on their temple walls–showed the less peaceful side of Maya culture, including the war between rival Mayan city-states and the importance of torture and human sacrifice to their religious ritual.

Political life:

Maya politics did not begin with kings in the early Pre-classic period. Much of the political systems in the Maya polities began in the late Pre-classic period around 300 BCE. The rulers of the various Maya city-states were thought to be a kind of human-god hybrid. Men weren’t the only people who were allowed to rule. On occasion, women would rule when the king wasn’t yet of age, when a king was away at war, or if a king was unavailable for some other reason. According to Martin, rulers could assert their status as king or lord on Ajaw or Ahau (lord) day. Kings would have an effigy of themselves carved on Sacred Round. 

Throughout the Maya era, the Maya remained in separate polities and did not unite as one empire. The same can be said for the celebrated Classic Maya period.

The Classic period is considered by Cioffi-Revilla and Landman to have had about 72 major political units. These polities did not all exist simultaneously. The researchers posit that about 50 polities existed together at one point. The 72-polity figure doesn’t include the smaller, less politically stratified units, however. Because these policies would trade with each other as well as non-Maya polities and were independent from each other, the Maya civilization is seen as an internationally trading civilization.

Social life:

 The most widely accepted system of social framework for the Maya is the classic three-tiered system. The system consists of elites, a “middle class,” and a “lower class.” The elites were typically situated near the temples in the city center and their homes were built of stone. The “middle class,” was further from the city centers, with homes made of wattle and daub. Wattle and daub are essentially the new world equivalent of thatch-roofed homes. The “lower class,” were typically even further from the city centers and had wattle and daub homes as well. However, this take on the social structure of the Maya may be shifting.

 The middle class was the main goods producer, it is implied that the elites and middle class worked closely together in regards to the production of specialized goods. The combination of the different elite uniforms supports the theory that the elites and middle classes worked together. While it may not be the case that elites are actually the producers of goods, they could have been foremen-types for certain industries.

In a study at Copán, there was more evidence to support the diversity between the social classes. Many of the skeletal remains of children across the classes exhibited similar nutrition and disease stresses. In contrast, the adult elites were more full-bodied, had less signs of arthritis, and were taller than adults from different classes.

Economic life:

While agriculture and food gathering were a central part of daily life, the Maya had a sophisticated economy capable of supporting specialists and a system of merchants and trade routes. While the Maya did not develop minted currency, they used various objects, at different times, as "money." These included greenstone beads, cacao beans and copper bells. 

Architecture:

Maya architects used readily available local materials, such as limestone at Palenque and Tikal, sandstone at Quiriguá, and volcanic tuff at Copan. Blocks were cut using stone tools only. Burnt-lime cement was used to create a form of concrete and was occasionally used as mortar, as was simple mud. Exterior surfaces were faced with stucco and decorated with high relief carvings or three-dimensional sculpture. Walls in Maya buildings are usually straight and produce sharp angles but a notable idiosyncrasy is seen at Uxmal's House of the Governor (10th century CE) which has outer walls which lean outwards as they rise (called negative batter). The whole exterior was then covered in stucco and painted in bright colours, especially red, yellow, green, and blue. Interior walls were often decorated with murals depicting battles, rulers, and religious scenes. Mansard roofs were typical and made in imitation of the sloped thatch roofing of the more modest wooden and wattle dwellings of the majority of the population.

Maya pyramids soaring above the surrounding jungle, such as the 65-metre high TempleIV at Tikal (8th century CE), are amongst the most famous images from the ancient Americas. Pyramids were used not only as temples and focal points for Maya religious practices where offerings were made to the gods but also as gigantic tombs for deceased rulers, their partners, sacrificial victims, and precious goods.

The larger Maya buildings used as palaces and administrative centres, like the temples, very often have sections with corbelled roofing - that is flat stones were piled one upon another, slightly over-lapping so that they formed a narrow enough gap that it could be spanned with a single capstone. 

Writing system:

The best preserved examples of Maya writing are often from stone monuments, most commonly altars, stelae and elements of architectural sculpture, especially around doorways and stairs. The Mayan script is, a combination of signs representing syllables (syllabograms) and words (logograms). Sometimes, concepts could be represented in alternative ways, for example, a jaguar could be indicated by a picture of a jaguar head or by the phonetic glyphs ba-la-ma or by a combination of a jaguar head and the glyph ma. Although there are around 1,000 different symbols in the Maya script, scribes of any one period used a range of between 300 to 500 signs. Despite the fact that there are only five vowels and nineteen consonants in the Maya language, there are actually 200 syllabic signs. This is because combinations of vowels and consonants could be indicated and a single sound could also be represented by several different signs. 

Signs and symbols were arranged in blocks which were placed in double columns. The text is read by starting from the top left and reading horizontally across two blocks and then moving down to the row below. In very short texts the glyph blocks are placed in a single line and are read from top to bottom in vertical texts or left to right in horizontal texts. Sentences follow the structure verb-object-subject and when necessary adverbs are placed before the verb.

Mayan Literacy:

It is probable that only a small elite of the Maya population could read, possibly only the nobility and priests. Interestingly, women of such status were not barred from learning to read and write. This restriction on just who acquired literacy fitted with the belief that writing was sacred. Indeed, the Maya believed that writing was invented by the god Itzamna and in the sacred text the Popol Vuh, the Monkey Scribes - the gods Hun Batz and Hun Chuen, brothers of the Hero Twins - are the patrons of writing and the arts in general. These two gods are often depicted on Maya pottery sat together with pen or brush in hand writing in a codex. Although literacy was, then, almost certainly limited, it may be that the general populace could recognise common symbols such as those representing dates and rulers.

Mayan inventions:

·        Astronomy

The Mayans discovered careful objective facts of heavenly bodies, recording cosmic information on the developments of the sun, moon, Venus and the stars. In spite of the fact that there were just 365 days in the Haab year, they knew that a year is somewhat longer than 365 days.

·        Ball Courts

The Mayans cherished their games, having a great time court in each city, like stadiums that we have today. The recreations were of extraordinary significance to the Maya, frequently playing amid religious celebrations of 20 days. The courts were situated at the foot of sanctuaries, to pay tribute to the Gods and Goddesses. 

·        Chocolate drinks

The Mayans contrived chocolate drinks from smashed cacao beans that were so significant that they were utilized as cash. It was the antiquated Mayans (250-900 C.E.) who were the first to find how delectable cacao beans were when aged, simmered, ground into glue, at that point blended with different fixings. 

·        Hallucinogenic Drugs:

Mayan shamans took stimulating substances to initiate daze like states amid exhibitions and customs in which they endeavored contact with the spiritual world. These substances affected the body in such a way that pain was not felt and energy was always pumped up. A number of these substances were additionally and currently are used as pain relief.

·        Mathematics

The Mayans had an extremely proficient numeral framework with which they could speak to expansive numbers. It had only three images: zero (shell shape), one (a dab) and five (a bar). They utilized these three images to speak to numbers from 0 to 19 and numbers after 19 were composed vertically in forces of 20, utilizing place esteems. The Mayans, therefore, utilized a base 20 or vigesimal number framework. The utilization of place esteems and zero made this framework much the same as the one we utilize today. With their framework being vigesimal, the second position had esteem 20 times that of the numeral, the third position had 202 or 400 times the esteem et cetera. The Mayans likewise utilized shorthand to express extensive numbers like 2.4.1.9.9, where the numbers 2,4,1,9 and 9 speaking to coefficients before forces of 20.

·        Mayan Calendar

 It was the Mayans who built up the timetable to its most extreme modernity. The Mayans date-book utilizes 3 distinctive dating frameworks: the Tzolkin (divine timetable), the Haab (common date-book) and the Long Count. Tzolkin joins a cycle of 20 named days with another cycle of 13 numbers, to deliver 260 interesting days. There are a few hypotheses for the 260 day tally of Tzolkin including it being founded on the human growth time frame; the agrarian cycle of the district; and the places of the planet Venus. The Haab was the sun-based date-book with 365 days. It comprised of a year and a half of 20 days in each month, trailed by 5 additional days, which were viewed as unfortunate and known as Wayeb.

·        Rubber:

Alongside other Mesoamerican societies, the Mayans made elastic from normal latex and blended in other plant substances to make elastic items with various properties, including bouncy balls.

Causes of Decline:

From the late eighth through the end of the ninth century, something unknown happened to shake the Maya civilization to its foundations. One by one, the Classic cities in the southern lowlands were abandoned, and by A.D. 900, Maya civilization in that region had collapsed.

Some believe that by the ninth century the Maya had exhausted the environment around them to the point that it could no longer sustain a very large population.

Other Maya scholars argue that constant warfare among competing city-states led the complicated military, family (by marriage) and trade alliances between them to break down, along with the traditional system of dynastic power. As the stature of the holy lords diminished, their complex traditions of rituals and ceremonies dissolved into chaos. Finally, some catastrophic environmental change–like an extremely long, intense period of drought–may have wiped out the Classic Maya civilization.

All three of these factors–overpopulation and overuse of the land, endemic warfare and drought–may have played a part in the downfall of the Maya in the southern lowlands. In the highlands of the Yucatan, a few Maya cities–such as Chichén Itzá, Uxmal and Mayapán–continued to flourish in the Post-Classic Period (A.D. 900-1500). By the time the Spanish invaders arrived, however, most Maya were living in agricultural villages, their great cities buried under a layer of rainforest green.

Conclusion:

 An extraordinary arrangement has been found out about the Mayans since the days of investigation and reported the collapse, however, for the Mayans living today, nothing of significance has ever been overlooked and the cycle of life proceeds on.

Nile Valley

Introduction:

North Africa's landscape is covered by the world's largest hot desert--the Sahara.  This massive Arid climate makes it a strange place for a large population of people.  Most of the Sahara is too harsh for people to live. The Nile Valley, coastal areas, and the rare oases (plural for oasis) provide the only places that can support life.

The Egyptian or the Nile Valley civilization developed, as the name suggests, along the banks of the river Nile in Egypt. Its long, narrow flood plain was a magnet for life, attracting people, animals and plants to its banks, and providing ideal conditions for the development of stable communities. Seen as a gift from the gods, the annual flooding of the river deposited nutrient rich silt over the land, creating ideal conditions for growing wheat, flax and other crops.

Time and Location:

Egypt is situated in the Nile Valley, in the north east of Africa. Its origins lay in several chiefdoms in Upper Egypt, at Abydos and Hierakonpolis, which then spread northwards towards Memphis and the Mediterranean. By 3000 BCE, the unified kingdom of Egypt occupied the entire Nile Valley north of a series of rapids called the 1st Cataract (the other cataracts lay in a chain stretching south along the River Nile into present-day Sudan). At its greatest extent, in c. 1250 BCE, Ancient Egypt occupied the land in all directions from the Syrian coast in the north, to the Red Sea in the east, down the Nile Valley to Nubia in the south, and spreading west inland into the Lybian Desert.

The life of Ancient Egypt centered around the river Nile and the fertile land along its banks. The farmers in the long, narrow Nile Valley developed irrigation methods to control the flow of the water, so that crops could grow through both its rainy and dry seasons. The valley was fertile and rich, creating vast surpluses of crops that made possible incredible building projects such as the Pyramids and the temples of Luxor. The surpluses were also used to fund a refined lifestyle for the elite; to develop overseas trade and diplomacy; and to pay for wars of conquest.

The achievements of the civilization involved innovations in writing – hieroglyphics and demotic; in administration; in quarrying and surveying, maths and architecture; in irrigation and agricultural methods; as well as in developing some of the earliest ships.

Town and town planning:

Early prehistoric settlement sites in the Nile Valley vary in size from as little as about 16 meters. The largest sites probably represent repeated occupations, with lateral displacement through time. By contrast, the Predynastic villages were the result of permanent occupation with a vertical build-up of deposits.

Prior to about 5000 BC, the inhabitants of the Nile Valley were mostly foragers who practiced fishing, fowling, hunting and collecting wild plants. The first known farming community then occupied a site at the edge of the floodplain of the Nile Delta at Merimda Beni Salama, about twenty-five kilometers to the northwest of Cairo. This was a large village, consisting of about 180,000 square meters and it remained populated for about 1,000 (one thousand) years, until about 4000 BC. At the end of this period, the dwellings consisted of clusters of semi-subterranean huts made from mud with mud-plastered walls and floors. The village had residential areas interspersed with workshops and public areas. Even though the orientation of huts in rows seems to suggest some organizational order, there is really no indication of elite areas or any pronounced hierarchical organization. Initial estimates of the village population were around 16,000, but more recent investigations suggest that it more likely had between 1,300 and 2,000 inhabitants, provided the whole of the area was simultaneously occupied.

Settlements and cities were located on the floodplain, with a preference for proximity to the Nile, in order to receive goods by boat and for its source of water. Unlike temples and tombs, most housing and public buildings in these cities and settlements were made of mudbrick throughout pharaonic times and shifts in the course of the Nile, the build-up of the floodplain by the annual deposition of silt and the impact of high Nile floods have all led to their destruction, which has sometimes been complete. Many cities, such as Thebes, have been built over by modern settlements, and even when some remains have survived, the mudbrick has been harvested by farmers to use as fertilizer. Finally, archaeological investigations since the nineteenth century have focused on temples and tombs, with their rich and spectacular art, sculpture and architecture, rather than the few less thrilling ancient Egyptian towns.

Social life:

Egyptian life depended on what social class you were a part of.  At the top of society was the Pharaoh.  Below the Pharaoh was the royal court (Pharaoh's family), high priests, government officials, and scribes and nobles (rich land owners).  Below them were doctors and engineers, craftsman, and then farmers and unskilled workers at the bottom.  Egyptians did use some slaves, but slavery is hardly mentioned in their writings.  Most people lived in mud-brick homes.  Women raised the children and men usually made an income for the family.  Egyptians enjoyed music, dancing, and playing games such as Senet. When farmers were not working the fields they often worked on construction projects including temples and irrigation canals.  Bread was the main food source, but they would have eaten meat during festivals. 

Social Structure

 King

Had a special status

Female companion also had a special status

Ruler of the land

 Ruling Class

Related or of high importance of the King

 Craftsman

Craftsman make weapons and tools for the people

Work on the decorations for tombs

 Farmers

Most people of the Nile tribes were farmers that can only be vaguely distinguished by their tombs.

 Marginalized Groups

Very little known about the people.

Did not live in organized structures

Acted as military

 Slaves

Little evidence of slavery

Servants were often used and sold.

The Pyramids were built by servants who were paid in beer.

Economic Life:

As with all pre-industrial civilizations, Ancient Egypt’s economy was based on agriculture. The great majority of the people were peasant farmers. Because of the fertile nature of the Nile Valley, they were able to produce the large surplus which sustained the refined lifestyle of the Pharaoh and his court, his officials, the priests and all the other members of the elite. Peasants also provided the mass labour which built the pyramids and temples along the Nile Valley.

Agriculture

Farming in Egypt was dependent completely on the Nile River. Just a few miles away from the river, on both sides, was bone dry desert. The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing a layer of wonderfully fertile silt on the land beside the river. As much as the flood water as possible was stored in tanks and ponds. After the flood waters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Egypt receives very little rainfall, so farmers irrigated their fields with river water from the reservoirs, and from the river itself. Ditches and canals carried the water to the fields.

Religion:

In Egypt, before the concept of God existed, magical power was encapsulated in the hieroglyph of a sceptre (or rod or staff). This is one of the most enduring symbols of divine power, ever present in images of the pharaohs and the gods.

As human society evolved, people gradually gained a degree of personal identity. With a higher sense of individuality, humans began to conceive the gods in a personalized form. This stage in development is called "mythical". In Egypt, this process began during the late prehistoric period, when writing was being invented and myths were being formulated.

At that stage, every Egyptian town had its own particular deity, manifested in a material fetish or a god represented in the shape of an animal, such as a cat-goddess, cobra-goddess, ibis-god or jackal-god. As the pantheon grew in cohesiveness, these gods and goddesses were given human bodies and credited with human attributes and activities. The temples in the major cities throughout the land were constructed to venerate local gods. During the New Kingdom, these temples honored a triad of gods based on the pattern established by the mythical family of Osiris, Isis and Horus.

Architecture

The Ancient Egyptians built some of the most-awe inspiring structures the world has ever seen, such as the Pyramids of Giza. The construction of pyramids was in fact restricted to the earlier days of Egyptian civilization. Later monumental architecture can be seen most clearly in the temples and giant statues of the Valley of the Kings and Abu Simbel.

The average Egyptian lived in a simple mud, wood or brick abode, with the elite having elaborate multi-room mansions with richly painted walls, decorated floors, and built around courtyards.

Writing and literature

The first hieroglyphic writing that has come down to us dates from c. 3000 BCE. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Egyptian hieroglyphic writing is composed of hundreds of symbols, which could be read in rows or columns, and in either direction (though in the majority of cases, written from right to left).

Science and Technology

Mathematics

The Ancient Egyptians developed high levels of mathematical skills to enable them to build their pyramids and temples with remarkably simple tools. There mathematics seems to have been of a more practical nature than that of the Mesopotamians, and therefore may have influenced later civilizations less; however, this practical mathematics must have been of a very high order indeed.

Medicine

Ancient Egyptian funerary practices, which involved embalming the dead, did not lead to detailed knowledge of human anatomy. Nevertheless, Egyptian medicine acquired an excellent reputation in the Ancient World. Ancient Egyptian doctors could stitch up wounds, repair broken bones and amputate infected limbs. Cuts were bandaged by raw meat, linen, and swabs soaked with honey. Opium was also used as a painkiller. Onions and garlic were used as health foods in the diet.

Close proximity to the Nile meant that water-borne diseases, such as malaria, were rife. Other common ailments included physical stresses caused from a life of labour. Life expectancy was between 30 (women) and 35 (men), however about one third of infants never reached adulthood.

Ship Building

The long river along which Ancient Egyptian civilization flourished was an ideal environment for the development of boat technology. As early as 3000 BCE an Egyptian ship of 75ft in length had been built. Planks of wood were originally held together by straps, with reeds or grass pushed in to seal the gaps. Soon tree nails were used to hold planks together, with pitch and caulking to close the seams; and mortise and tenon joints had also been developed. However, despite having ships on which to sail, they were not renowned as great sailors and do not seem to have engage in shipping across the Mediterranean or Red Seas on a regular basis.

Collapse of the Nile Valley civilization:

Scientists are assembling increasing evidence that drought conditions helped caused the collapse of a number of ancient civilizations from the eastern Mediterranean to India around 2200 B.C. This date coincides with the last years of the long reign of Pepy II.

Soil borings from Ethiopia’s Lake Tana, the source of a major river that flows into the Nile, show the lake was very shallow around 2200 B.C. Downstream at the same time, borings from the lake at the Faiyum Oasis indicate it dried up entirely.

Scientists think that a shift in the circulation of the atmosphere may have reduced rainfall and caused widespread climate change in many places, including Ethiopia and East Africa. This would account for the series of low Nile floods at the end of the Old Kingdom.

Climate change alone, however, probably did not cause the Old Kingdom to collapse. Dry periods had taken place earlier in Egypt’s history.

When the Nile failures were reaching their peak and drastically shrinking the food supply, Pepy II was in his 80s or 90s. At the end of his extremely long reign, he and his government administrators undoubtedly lacked the vigor and creativity to cope with such a natural disaster. After his death, as the drought continued, the lack of any strong king to emerge and handle this crisis guaranteed the permanent collapse of the Old Kingdom.

Over the next 100 years, Egypt split apart. A civil war raged in the Nile Valley between kings at a new capital near Memphis and rival kings at Thebes. In addition, some nome governors challenged the kings on both sides.

Meanwhile, below normal Nile floods persisted, causing widespread starvation and death among the common people. No one authority was in charge to deal with this crisis. Thus the ancient civilization collapsed.

Conclusion:

Eventually, the civilization of ancient Egypt collapsed, but because of the Nile, much is known about life in this ancient empire. Though ancient Egypt society has disappeared, the waters of the Nile River continue to flow and bring prosperity to those who harness its power.

Inca civilization

Introduction:

The English term Inca Empire is derived from the word Inca, which was the title of the emperor. Today the word Inca still refers to the emperor, but can also refer to the people or the civilization, and is used as an adjective when referring to the beliefs of the people or the artifacts they left behind. The Inca Civilization was wealthy and well-organized, with generally humane treatment of its people, including the vanquished. The empire was really a federal system.

Time and Location:

The Inca Empire (called Tawantinsuyu in modern spelling, Aymara and Quechua, or Tahuantinsuyu in old spelling Quechua), was an empire located in South America from 1438 C.E. to 1533 C.E. The Inca empire proved short-lived: by 1533 C.E., Atahualpa, the last Sapa Inca, was killed on the orders of the Conquistador Francisco Pizarro (1476–1541), marking the beginning of Spanish rule.

Over that period, the Inca used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges. It stretched north to south some 2,500 miles along the high mountainous Andean range from Colombia to Chile and reached west to east from the dry coastal desert called Atacama to the steamy Amazonian rain forest. At the height of its existence the Inca Empire was the largest nation on Earth and remains the largest native state to have existed in the western hemisphere.

Town and town planning:

Political organization of the empire:

The most powerful figure in the empire was the Sapa Inca (emperor), or simply Inca. When a new ruler was chosen, his subjects would build his family a new royal dwelling. The former royal dwelling would remain the dwelling of the former Inca's family. Only descendants of the original Inca tribe ever ascended to the level of Inca. Most young members of the Inca's family attended Yachayhuasis (houses of knowledge) to obtain their education.

The Tahuantinsuyu was a federation which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provinces: Chinchaysuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Qontisuyu (SW), and Qollasuyu (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cuzco. Each province had a governor who oversaw local officials, who in turn supervised agriculturally productive river valleys, cities, and mines. There were separate chains of command for both the military and religious institutions, which created a system of partial checks and balances on power. The local officials were responsible for settling disputes and keeping track of each family's contribution to the Mita (mandatory public service). The Inca's system of leaving conquered rulers in post as proxy rulers, and of treating their subject people well, was very different from what was practiced elsewhere in South America.

The four provincial governors were called apos. The next rank down, the t'oqrikoq (local leaders), numbered about 90 in total and typically managed a city and its hinterlands. Below them were four levels of administration:

Level name	Mita payers
Hunu kuraqa	10,000
Waranqa kuraqa	1,000
Pachaka kuraqa	100
Chunka kamayuq	10

Religion:

The Inca had great reverence for two earlier civilizations who had occupied much the same territory - the Wari and Tiwanaku. As we have seen, the sites of Tiwanaku and Lake Titicaca played an important part in Inca creation myths and so were especially revered. Inca rulers made regular pilgrimages to Tiwanaku and the islands of the lake, where two shrines were built to Inti the Sun god and supreme Inca deity, and the moon goddess Mama Kilya. Also in the Coricancha complex at Cuzco, these deities were represented by large precious metal artworks which were attended and worshipped by priests and priestesses led by the second most important person after the king: the High Priest of the Sun (Willaq Umu). Thus, the religion of the Inca was preoccupied with controlling the natural world and avoiding such disasters as earthquake, floods, and drought, which inevitably brought about the natural cycle of change, the turning over of time involving death and renewal which the Inca called pachakuti.

Population:

The Inca established their capital at Cuzco (Peru) in the 12th century. They began their conquests in the early 15th century and within 100 years had gained control of an Andean population of about 12 million people.

Social life:

The Inca Empire was the largest empire during the days of the pre-Columbian America.  The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru during the early 13th century and the people were generally referred to as the Incas.  The Incas considered their king to be the son of the sun and this king was known as the Sapa Inca.

The Incas followed a strict social hierarchy system and according to this system, there were 4 main levels which were the Sapa Inca, The Royalty, the Nobility and the Ayllu.  To know more about what each of these levels meant, you can read the following given information:

Sapa inca: The Sapa Inca was the most powerful person during the Inca civilization and in other terms, was the king of the Incas.  The Sapa Inca was considered to be the son of the sun and was the wealthiest and most respected person. 

Royalty: Besides the Sapa Inca or the king, the relatives and family of the king were known as the Royalty and had a very high status in the society. They were the wealthiest and the most powerful people.  The son of the Sapa Inca was called the Auqyi.

·        Coya

·        Auqyi

Nobility: Below the Royalty came the nobility which was the class of people who acted as leaders to govern over the rest of the Incas population. This class was further subdivided into three other divisions which are given as follows:

·        Capac Incans-highest ranking nobles

·        Huhua Incans- these were not the true nobles but were still given the status and rights

·        Curacas-these were the local leaders and collected taxes.

Commoners: Most of the Incas population belonged to the category of the commoners.  These people took up low wage jobs like farming, herding and even worked as servants at the houses of the nobility or the royalty.

·        Farmers

·        Herders

·        Servants

·        Slaves

Economic life:

The main industry of the Inca empire was farming—a very difficult endeavor on the cold, steep slopes of the Andes Mountains and on the desertlike coastal plains of Peru. Many of the peoples conquered by the Incas already had terraces (a series of large horizontal ridges, like stairs, made on a mountain or hillside to create a level space for farming) and systems for irrigation, and the Incas made extensive additions to these agricultural advances. Using mit'a labor to construct irrigation canals and carve terraces from steep mountainsides, they ensured that all arable land (land fit for farming) was put to use. The Incas also delivered llamas to regions that had not had them before; these animals were raised for their wool and meat and served as pack animals too. Many scholars agree that the Incas put more land to use for farming and animal-raising than any society since.

Currency

Inca society was based on a barter system. Workers got labor credit, which was work paid for in goods or food. It was well used in their day. It was a very good system for their needs

Agriculture:

The Inca state developed a huge farming apparatus, where crops and herds were commandeered from conquered peoples and the people themselves were periodically commandeered to work on state-owned farms. More positively, a vast network of storage facilities was developed to insure against times of drought and disaster and foodstuffs were often given out as gifts by rulers seeking to make themselves popular. 

At a micro-level each family unit produced its own food. Family units were part of a wider kin group or ayllu which collectively owned farmland. Ideally, an ayllu would posses at least some land in both the highlands and more temperate lowlands so that a diversity of foodstuffs could be cultivated. For example, the highlands could offer good pasture and permit potato and maize production, while coca could only be grown at lower altitudes. An area of land for maize cultivation (perhaps around 1.5 acres) called a tupu was given to newlyweds by their ayllu so that they might be self-sustainable. In addition, their first child entitled the couple to another half tupu. If the owner of land died without an heir, then the land was returned to the ayllu for future redistribution.

Land was worked using simple tools such as a hoe, clod breaker, and foot plough - the chakitaqlla, which consisted of a wooden or bronze pointed pole that was pushed into the ground by placing one's foot on a horizontal bar. Agriculture was a community practice, and farmers worked in small teams of seven or eight, often singing as they worked with the men hoeing and women following behind, breaking up clods and sowing seeds.

 Crops cultivated across the Inca Empire included maize, coca, beans, grains, potatoes, sweet potatoes, ulluco, oca, mashwa, pepper, tomatoes, peanuts, cashews, squash, cucumber, quinoa, gourd, cotton, talwi, carob, chirimoya, lúcuma, guayabo, and avocado. Livestock was primarily llama and alpaca herds. These animals were vital to many aspects of Andean life as they provided wool, meat, leather, moveable wealth, transportation - especially for the army, and they were often sacrificed in religious ceremonies. Some of the larger state-owned herds could have tens of thousands of animals, and all herds were meticulously accounted for in a state census conducted each November.

The Incas were ambitious farmers, and to maximise agricultural production, they transformed the landscape with terracing, canals, and irrigation networks, whilst wetlands were often drained to make them suitable for farming. In addition, the Incas were fully aware of the values of regular crop rotation, and they also fertilized the land with dried llama dung, guano, or fish heads if these materials were available. Even so, the often harsh Andean climate could bring floods, droughts, and storms which, along with disease, meant that annual crop failures were not infrequent. In such cases the Inca talent for food storage came into its own.

FOOD STORAGE

Foodstuffs (and other goods) were stored in storehouses (qollqa) which were built in the tens of thousands across the empire, typically arranged in neat rows and near population centers, large estates, and roadside stations. State officials kept careful accounts of their stocks using the quipu, a recording device of strings and knots. Qollqa were single-roomed stone buildings, either circular or rectangular, which were built in a remarkably uniform manner. Placed on hillsides to take advantage of cool breezes, qollqa were designed to maximise the storage time of the perishable goods with which they were filled.

Language:

The Inca used a system of knotted strings known as quipu to send messages around their empire. The number and shape of the knots and the colours of the strings helped to remind messengers of the contents of the messages. Recent research suggests that the quipu might have been used not just as mnemonic devices but also to record the Quechua language phonetically.

Quechua first appeared in print in 1560 in the form of a dictionary by Domingo de Santo Tomás. Other early texts include collections of hymns by Cristóbal de Molina and a Quechua cathechism by Juardo Palomino. 

Arts:

The Inca were a conquering society, and their expansionist assimilation of other cultures is evident in their artistic style. The artistic style of the Inca utilized the vocabulary of many regions and cultures, but incorporated these themes into a standardized imperial style that could easily be replicated and spread throughout the empire. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylized animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles, and metalwork were all part of the Inca culture. The motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were directly used with the exception of Huari and Tiwanaku arts.

Architecture & Roads:

Master stone masons, the Incas constructed large buildings, walls and fortifications using finely-worked blocks - either regular or polygonal - which fitted together so precisely no mortar was needed. With an emphasis on clean lines, trapezoid shapes, and incorporating natural features into these buildings, they have easily withstood the powerful earthquakes which frequently hit the region. The distinctive sloping trapezoid form and fine masonry of Inca buildings were, besides their obvious aesthetic value, also used as a recognisable symbol of Inca domination throughout the empire.

One of the most common Inca buildings was the ubiquitous one-room storage warehouse the qollqa. Built in stone and well-ventilated, they were either round and stored maize or square for potatoes and tubers. The kallanka was a very large hall used for community gatherings. More modest buildings include the kancha - a group of small single-room and rectangular buildings (wasi and masma) with thatched roofs built around a courtyard enclosed by a high wall. The kancha was a typical architectural feature of Inca towns, and the idea was exported to conquered regions. Terracing to maximise land area for agriculture (especially for maize) was another Inca practice, which they exported wherever they went. These terraces often included canals, as the Incas were expert at diverting water, carrying it across great distances, channelling it underground, and creating spectacular outlets and fountains.

Goods were transported across the empire along purpose-built roads using llamas and porters (there were no wheeled vehicles). The Inca road network covered over 40,000 km and as well as allowing for the easy movement of armies, administrators, and trade goods, it was also a very powerful visual symbol of Inca authority over their empire. The roads had rest stations along their way, and there was also a relay system of runners (chasquis) who carried messages up to 240 km in a single day from one settlement to another.

Science:

Quipus:

 A quipu was a series of strings with knots. The number of knots, the size of the knots, and the distance between knots conveyed meaning to the Inca, sort of like writing. Only specially trained officials knew how to use quipus. 

Read more at: http://www.ducksters.com/history/inca/science_and_technology.php
This text is Copyright © Ducksters. Do not use without permission. :p

Stone Buildings

The Inca were able to create sturdy stone buildings. Without the use of iron tools they were able to shape large stones and have them fit together without the use of mortar. By fitting the stones closely as well as other architectural techniques, the Inca were able to create large stone buildings that survived for hundreds of years despite the many earthquakes that occur in Peru.

Calendar and Astronomy

The Inca used their calendar to mark religious festivals as well as the seasons so they could plant their crops at the correct time of the year. They studied the sun and the stars to calculate their calendar. The Inca calendar was made up of 12 months. Each month had three weeks of ten days each. When the calendar and the sun got off track, the Inca would add a day or two to bring them back into alignment. 

Collapse:

The Inca Empire was founded on, and maintained by, force, and the ruling Incas were very often unpopular with their subjects (especially in the northern territories), a situation that the Spanish conquistadores, led by Francisco Pizarro, would take full advantage of in the middle decades of the 16th century CE. The Inca Empire, in fact, had still not reached a stage of consolidated maturity when it faced its greatest challenge. Rebellions were rife, and the Incas were engaged in a war in Ecuador where a second Inca capital had been established at Quito. Even more serious, the Incas were hit by an epidemic of European diseases, such as smallpox, which had spread from central America even faster than the European invaders themselves, and the wave killed a staggering 65-90% of the population. Such a disease killed Wayna Qhapaq in 1528 CE and two of his sons, Waskar and Atahualpa, battled in a damaging civil war for control of the empire just when the European treasure-hunters arrived. It was this combination of factors - a perfect storm of rebellion, disease, and invasion - which brought the downfall of the mighty Inca Empire, the largest and richest ever seen in the Americas.

The Inca language Quechua lives on today and is still spoken by some eight million people. There are also a good number of buildings, artefacts, and written accounts which have survived the ravages of conquerors, looters, and time. These remains are proportionally few to the vast riches which have been lost, but they remain indisputable witnesses to the wealth, ingenuity, and high cultural achievements of this great, but short-lived civilization.

Conclusion:

Unlike many other ancient civilizations, in the Inca empire if common people performed their obligation to the government, they were usually assured of a certain standard of life. In The Ancient American Civilizations (1972) Friedrich Katz remarks that "there is no other state in pre-Spanish America, in the ancient East or in European antiquity in which trade was so uniquely controlled by the state that not a single general article of barter served as currency.… Hardly any state of comparable size in antiquity … allowed the peasantry such far-reaching social rights as did the Inca state."

Chinese civilization

Introduction:

We will refer to Ancient China as the time between the Neolithic period (ca. 6,000‒ ca. 1750 BCE) and the Han dynasty (206 BCE‒220 CE), which is roughly equivalent to the period of the Roman Empire in the West. This is the formative stage of Chinese civilization. During this time, what we now call China developed from a collection of isolated cultural communities to a set of organized states which eventually coalesced around the idea of a single unified state, and then expanded to include contact with other civilizations. The rise of civilization in China meant a gradual process of organizing disparate groups around a set of common beliefs, first by force, and then by articulating what it meant to be Chinese. 

Timeline of Ancient Chinese History:

Ancient China (c. 1600–221 BC)

Chinese civilization began along the Yellow River in the Shang era, and spread from there when bronze age culture reached its peak. Then traditional Chinese philosophies, such as Confucianism and Daoism developed in the feudal Zhou era as China expanded in territory and population.

Ancient China finally fractured into warring kingdoms for 200 years, and its reunification marked the start of the Imperial China age.

The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC)

The Shang Dynasty was the first with historical records remaining — inscriptions on bones and bronze objects. Its capital was Yin (Anyang) and its territory was between the lower reaches of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers.

The Zhou Dynasty (1045-221 BC)

Major philosophies and religions emerged that were the basis of Chinese belief in later eras, such as Confucianism and Daoism.

This era was divided into three periods: the Western Zhou Dynasty (1045–771 BC); the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BC), and the Warring States Period(475–221 BC). It marked the transition from tribal society to feudal society.

Imperial China (221 BC – 1912 AD)

The imperial China period makes up the bulk of Chinese history. With the cyclical rise and fall of dynasties, Chinese civilization was cultivated and prospered in times of peace, then reformed after rebellions and conquests.

The Qin and Han Dynasties (221BC –220 AD)

The short-lived Qin Dynasty was the first to unite China as a country under an emperor instead of a ruling clan. A bureaucratic government was introduced, and was continued by the less-extreme Han Dynasty.

The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC)

The First Emperor was first to use the title emperor in China. He and his Qin State united China by conquering the other warring states, and ruled with an iron fist.

The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC) was the first and shortest imperial dynasty in China, famous for great building projects like the Great Wall and the Terracotta Army.

Liu Bang, a peasant leader, overthrew the unpopular Qin regime and established the Han Dynasty.

The Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)

The longest imperial dynasty, the Han Dynasty, was known for starting Silk Road trade, connecting China with Central Asia and Europe. During the Han era, agriculture, handicrafts, and commerce developed well.

During the reign of Emperor Wudi (r.140-87 BC), the Han regime had its greatest prosperity. The multi-ethnic country became more united during the Han regime.

 

Or simply the timeline:D

1766 BCE: traditional date for the founding of the first historic dynasty in China, the Shang dynasty

1122 BCE: Western Zhou dynasty founded after the overthrow of the last Shang king

771 BCE: Eastern Zhou dynasty period begins after the sack of the Western Zhou capital; the first phase is traditionally divided into two: the Spring and Autumn (771-481 BCE) and the Warring States (481-221 BCE) periods

551-479 BCE: Confucius, China’s preeminent philosopher, lives

221 BCE: The First Emperor, Qin Shih Huang, completes the conquest of all other Chinese states

202 BCE: The Han dynasty founded, after several years of chaos following the fall of the Qin

220 CE: the fall of the Han dynasty is a convenient marker for the end point of the ancient period of Chinese history.

Location:

China is a vast country with a huge range of terrains and climates within it. As well as the country’s sheer size, geographical features such as mountain ranges, deserts and coastlands have all helped shape Chinese history. Above all, the great river systems of China, the Yellow River to the north and the Yangtze to the south, which have given Chinese civilization its distinctive character.

The Yellow River region

The civilization of ancient China first developed in the Yellow River region of northern China, in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. A large part of this area is covered by loess soil. This very fine earth has blown in from the highlands of central Asia over thousands of years, and makes one of the most fertile soils in the world. In ancient times, the main crop in northern China was millet, a highly nutritious food still grown in many parts of the world as a major crop.

The Yangtze Valley region

To the south, the great Yangtze valley, with its warm, wet climate, was the first area in the world where rice was grown, sometime before 5000 BCE. From this region rice cultivation spread far and wide across southern China and into south-east Asia.

Between the rivers

Away from the great river valleys, hills, forests and swamplands covered much of China at this time. These would later be covered by dense populations of farmers, but in ancient times these regions were home to many small groups of people who practised some farming, but who also hunted animals and gathered plants for a living.

Population:

 Under the Shang dynasty the Chinese people covered a sizeable portion, but by no means all, of the north China plain, plus some of the Loess plateau to its west. Under the Zhou it came to dominate most of northern China, and began expanding into the Yangtze basin to the south. By the end of the Han dynasty, northern China still remained home to the great majority of the Chinese people, and the heart of Chinese civilization. The Yangzte region was still being settled by the Chinese, and its native inhabitants being assimilated. The south, and even more so the southwest, remained frontier regions inhabited by non-Chinese peoples, except in or near a few scattered Chinese towns along the coast or on major roads.

Under the Han, the first population censuses began being taken. These tell us that the population of the Chinese empire at the beginning of the first century CE was some 60 millions. About 140 years later the figure had dropped somewhat, to 50 millions. This was as a result of the upheavals linked to the Wang Mang episode of 9 to 23 CE; but also perhaps to the declining well-being of the common people under the late Han dynasty.

Social life:

According to the traditional Confucian view, society is made up of four classes: government officials, farmers, artisans and merchants.

The Aristocracy

Shang dynasty society was dominated by an hereditary warrior aristocracy, and the same was true under the Zhou dynasty , down to at least the 7th century BCE. Its economic power was based on fief-holding: the highest nobility were regional lords controlling large chunks of territory, and answering to them were lesser lords holding smaller territories. All these fiefs were farmed by serfs – peasants tied to their lands, who had to provide their lord tribute in kind as well as with labour and military service.

The Gentry

The gentry class originated in Shang and early Zhou times as groups of warriors who made up the personal retinues of the lords.

The gentry class emerged as the most influential class in Chinese society. Men of this class looked to educational achievement rather than feats of arms as their badge of honour, and fixed their ambition on a career in government instead of in military service. An official career in Han times was for the most part open only to members of the gentry class.

The Peasantry

Under the Shang, most of the population were peasants farming small plots of land. Since this land was controlled by aristocrats, the peasants had to give part of their crops as tribute and were required to follow their lord to war, or to work on a project which he wanted carrying out, such as digging a canal, building a dam or constructing a palace.

Religion and thoughts:

Early Chinese religion had a supreme god called Di. Later, in Zhou times this anthropomorphic idea of the supreme being was replaced by the concept of an impersonal, non-anthropomorphic force with overarching power, which the Chinese called Heaven. Although impersonal, Heaven can be worshipped, and does have a will, and is able powerfully to carry this out.

It is above all the ruler’s responsibility to pray to this mighty spiritual force on behalf of all mankind. Other people may deal with lesser deities, and to this end, various practices are available to aide people in their dealings with supernatural forces.

A specifically Chinese practice called Feng shui (“Wind and Water”), is used to enable actions to be carried out in harmony with the forces of the universe (Dao). Most notably, feng shui experts are employed to ensure that buildings and graves are located and orientated properly so that they benefit from and do not disrupt the functioning of natural forces.

Ancient China saw the emergence of the three great philosophies which were to influence Chinese thought until the 19th century: Confucianism, Daoism and Legalism. Throughout China’s long history these philosophical strands have never been mutually exclusive. Quite apart from the fact that many educated Chinese have been Confucians in public life, Daoists in the privacy of their own homes, and when serving in an official post have happily pursued legalist policies, the different philosophies have deeply influenced each other so that, for example, the dominant of the three, Confucianism, has had strong Daoist and Legalist elements within it.

Towns and cities

The archaeological evidence shows that the first cities appeared in northern China in the late third/early second millennium BCE – i.e at the time of the Shang dynasty. These cities were many times bigger than even the largest villages which had come before; they contained palaces and temples, and were surrounded by large walls made from beaten earth. Near the palace were the workshops of many skilled craftsmen, who provided the king and his court with the beautiful objects – amongst them some of the most beautiful bronze vessels ever produced – with which they surrounded themselves.

Such cities also flourished under the early Zhou, but numerous new cities were also founded as centres of Zhou power across northern China. Most of these were originally not large. They were essentially small walled forts occupied by a regional lord, his followers and their families, and artisans and traders who supplied their needs.

In middle Zhou times (c. 800 – 500 BCE), as population and wealth increased markedly, many of these towns grew in size as industrial and commercial centres. They housed a growing class of traders and artisans. This process accelerated in the later Zhou period (c. 500-250 BCE) as economic expansion continued apace. Towns became more numerous, some functioning primarily as commercial and artisanal centres rather than as administrative centres. This period saw the merchant class especially became more numerous, wealthier and more influential as a class.

This development continued into the Qin and Han dynasty periods. Under the latter, it is estimated that China had twelve or so cities with 50,000 or more inhabitants. The capital of the early Han, Chang’an, had a quarter of a million inhabitants, and of the later Han, Loyang, half a million – both amongst the largest cities in the world at that time.

Economic life:

We know that the first metal coins to come onto the scene in human history appeared in China at the end of the Shang Dynasty about 3,000 years ago. Before this, Chinese traded with other objects, including shells. Most Chinese coins had a round shape and, in the center, a square hole. The Chinese minted their coins (stamped the coins from metal) with these shapes to represent heaven and Earth--it was believed that heaven is round and Earth is square.

Tax Time

Ancient China was also a pioneer in the concept of taxation, which is when the government collects money from its people to fund projects and pay government officials. A farmer would have to pay one-tenth of the food he grew as taxes. To make sure enough food was being produced and there was enough tax being paid, the government would give a man fields for planting and harvesting at the age of 20. At the age of 60, however, the man would have to return the fields back to the government.

We know a lot about taxes in ancient China because they kept lots of records. What's more, we know that the government spent a lot of that tax money on its officials--there were about two dozen levels of government officials, each with their own pay grade.

Trading Blocks

Ancient China also greatly affected world trade. One of the most successful trade networks for exchanging goods and money is remembered as the Silk Road, a trade route running from China through all of Asia and into Europe. Since Europeans couldn't make their own silk or grow their own spices, they had to trade from very far away to get them.

The first metal coins, made out of copper, made trade easy because they could be exchanged for anything and were easy to carry around. They called these coins Ban Liang quin, which just means a coin from Ban Liang.

Agriculture:

In northern China millet was the staple crop, while in the Yangtze basin and southern China, rice was the staple. The Yangtze basin was the earliest home of domesticated rice, and it was here that wet-rice cultivation in flooded paddy fields was pioneered.

In Shang and early Zhou times, cattle, sheep and goats were important in the economy; the aristocracy also indulged in great hunting expeditions, for both food and as practice for war.

In the late Shang period (late second millennium BCE) soya beans spread to northern China, adding a valuable source of nutrition in the diet.

From mid-Zhou times, there was an intensification of agriculture in northern China. Large-scale irrigation schemes brought more land under cultivation. Human waste began to be used as a fertilizer. Field rotation also came into use, to keep the soil productive. Animal-drawn ploughs allowed soil to be turned more quickly, and the wider use of iron ploughs from the 5th century BCE onwards allowed the soil to be turned more deeply. Iron axes and hoes helped the clearing of new ground for cultivation. As population densities increased, animals became less important. 

Industry

As in all other societies of the time, the vast bulk of manufacturing activity took place in small units, the homes of craftsmen and farmers. It was here that food was processed, textiles were spun and woven, clothes sown, silk was produced, butter, cheeses and other dairy products were

The introduction of the use of iron was a major step forward for manufacturing. Iron objects are much easier and cheaper to produce than bronze ones, because whereas iron is found in many places in the earth, copper and tin are not nearly so widespread, and also have to be carefully alloyed together to make bronze. Whereas bronze was used mainly in weapons and decorative objects – that is, used only by kings and priests, lords, priests and high officials – iron could be used much more widely. As we have seen, iron tools enabled farmers to become much more productive.

From mid-Zhou times onwards some large-scale manufacturing units began to appear: there are reports of iron smelting works employing more than 200 workmen. Continual experimentation led to major technological advances. Most notably, the Chinese developed larger and better designed kilns, which led to the invention of steel, more than a thousand years before the West. Weapons – including the newfangled crossbow – and armour were produced at state factories

Technology

In comparison with any other region of the ancient world, China was extremely inventive. In the above discussion of the economy of ancient China we have had occasion to mention the development of steel, the crossbow, the wheelbarrow and the seed drill. The most notable invention, though, was paper. This occurred at the imperial court of the Late Han.

Paper solved a major problem which the bureaucracy experienced. Up until that time, bamboo strips, sewn together and rolled into scrolls, were used for documents. These were awkward to make and heavy to carry about. Silk was sometimes used for important documents but was far too expensive for everyday use. Paper was cheap and simple to manufacture, and very portable. Soon its use was spreading rapidly throughout China.

Literature:

All the Classics of Chinese literature date from the Zhou period. The original “Five Classics” were so designated because they were particularly esteemed by Confucius. They were thus revered above all other works by Chinese scholars, and became the literary foundation of Chinese civilization. They were:

•  The Book of Changes (I-ching), a collection of rituals and spells, with commentaries drawing out  their mystical meanings;
•  The Book of Documents, a collection of speeches supposedly from the early Zhou period;
•  The Book of Songs, a collection of early poetry, which set the tone for all that came later;
•  The Spring and Autumn Annals, a sparse and unadorned chronicle of major events from 722 to  481 BCE – plus three classic commentaries which go with it, elucidating the cryptic comments on  the original work;
•  The Book of Rituals, a collection of handbooks on government organization, gentlemanly behavior and court ritual.

Art in Ancient China:

The Shang and Zhou periods produced many fine examples of what later Chinese would regard as craft work – unglazed pottery, jade carvings, lacquer work and above all bronze castings. Modern critics, however, have universally regarded many pieces produced at this time as some of the finest artworks ever produced.

This is particularly true of the bronzes. These included a great variety of forms – hollow-legged tripod cookers, four legged cauldrons, deep bowls, shallow basins, narrow bottle-shaped goblets and so on, all presumably used in religious and court rituals.

The bronzes fall into three broad phases. The Shang and early Zhou phase (there was a strong continuity between the two dynasties in this respect) produced pieces characterized by restraint in shape and decoration which resulted in a lightness and elegance unmatched in other periods. The middle Zhou saw a decline into over-decorativeness and bulbous shapes; and a late Zhou phase produced a renewed elegance, sometimes ornate, sometimes refined, which neared the perfection of the first period.

By the end of the Han period, painting had become associated with literature, especially poetry, and was therefore seen as a gentlemanly pursuit rather than a craft. Pottery, metalwork and sculpture, on the other hand, were becoming viewed as craftwork, unworthy of a gentleman.

Decline of ancient Chinese civilization:

The Han dynasty lasted until 220 CE, when it broke up into several successor states. This opened a period of weakness for China, when no single dynasty was able to establish its rule over the whole country, and when barbarian peoples from surrounding regions were able to found a multitude of states within China. This was a dark period in Chinese history, but by no means as dark as the period which followed the collapse of the western Roman empire in Europe. Society was disrupted, trade declined and many cities shrank, but even in barbarian-occupied areas administration staffed by Confucian-educated officials continued to govern, and Chinese civilization continued largely as before. Within just a few centuries new dynasties would arise to once again rule China as a single empire.

Salient features of ancient Chinese civilization:

Art of Writing:

The people of China developed their own system of writing. At first, they drew small pictures on bamboo slips to express their idea. These pictures were known as ‘Pictogram’. With the progress of time, further improvement was made on pictures. Now pictures expend the idea regarding an object like fruit, serpent, river etc. or time like the dawn, noon, night etc.

Pen and Brush:

The Chinese people first invented bamboo pens for writing. They wrote on bamboo plates by these pens. Later on they began to write on silk cloth by using brush and ink. The brush was made of camel-hair. They prepared one type of coloured liquid and used it as ink. In this way, the Chinese people learnt to use pen and brush.

Ink and Ink-pot:

The flame of fire coming in contact with earthen pot created black particles, at its back. The Chinese collected these black particles and added gum and water with those black powder and prepared ink. This coloured liquid was kept in an ink pot. In the later stage, the Chinese people mingled such black powder, gum and water and prepared a mixture.

They dried up this mixture by keeping it under sunshine. When it became hard, it was broken into small pieces and preserved. Such small pieces were dropped in water. When these pieces dissolved fully, ink was prepared and used. They added flower perfume to the ink in order to make it fragrant. Thus, the Chinese people prepared ink in this process and preserved it in ink-pot.

Paper:

The Chinese people are the first inventor of modern paper. Necessity is the mother of invention. To write on bamboo plates and preserve them for a long time became difficult for the Chinese people. They thought other way for making this process smooth. So, the Chinese pounded the barks of trees, rags, grass etc. and added water and gum to the pounded-materials and boiled the entire solution on fire.

Then they dried it under sun and prepared paper. Around 105 B.C., the Chinese had invented paper which was their greatest contribution to the history of mankind. Later on the Arabs learnt paper-making process from the Chinese people.

Literature:

The people of ancient China had created a vast treasury of valuable literature. Although, Si-Whang-Ti had ordered for the destruction of ancient literature of China but he had also tried his level best to create new literature in China. Among the ancient literature of China. ‘The Song of the Old Farmer’, ‘The Son of the Felicitous Cloud’ and ‘The Five Classics’ are very famous. The greatest poet of China was Li-Tai-Po who produced 30 epics.

Science:

The ancient Chinese achieved excellence in the field of education. They were apt in arithmetic and geometry. They developed a lot in the field of astrology by observing the position of planets and stars in the sky. By sixth century B.C. the Chinese had acquired knowledge on solar eclipse and lunar eclipse. They prepared calendar and counted year, month and day. They invented 16 musical instruments including drum water clock and lute.

Medicine and Surgery:

The ancient Chinese were well aware about different limbs of a human body. They fully knew about the function of heart, liver and bile- cell. They knew how to treat fever, diarrhoea, weakness and blindness. They prepared powder from animal bones and used for treatment of various diseases.

The greatest contribution of the Chinese to the world civilisation anaesthesia. Through it they made a patient senseless and operated in his body. Later on, this anaesthesia was used in case of surgery as is today.

Art and Architecture:

The achievements of Chinese in the field of art and architecture are laudable. To protect China from the attack of the Hunas and Tartars, emperor Si-Whang-Ti had built the Great Wall of China. The great wall was 2250 in length, 20 feet in breadth and 22 feet in height. A fort of 40 feet high was constructed at the distance of 130 yards from the beginning of the wall till its end.

There was provision for staying of 100 soldiers in each fort with their arms. Of course, Si-Whang-Ti had been criticised for the construction of this wall by using the prisoners of war and labourers without paying them any wage. Still then, the Great Wall of China is regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

Glass, Pottery and Silk:

By second century B.C. the Chinese had already known about the use of glass. They prepared various household articles and equipment from glass. They used Chinese clay to prepare pottery of various types. They painted different pictures in pottery. The Chinese were number one in the production of silk. The Chinese silk had a great demand in Greece, Rome, Crate and other places of the world.

Mariner’s Compass, Gun powder and Tea:

The ancient Chinese people were first in many fields. For the first time the invented Mariner’s Compass which helped the sailors to determine the direction inside the deep sea. The magnet inside the compass indicated North and South direction. The gun powder was another great invention of the Chinese. In due course of time, this gun powder determined the course of history. Tea was another new discovery of the Chinese. Today it is used all over the world.

Aztec civilization

Introduction:

The Aztecs were a Mesoamerican people of central Mexico in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries. They were a civilization with a rich cultural heritage whose capital, Tenochtitlan, rivaled the greatest cities of Europe in size and grandeur.

Location:

The Aztec capital city was located at Tenochtitlán, which is the site of the modern Mexico city, and their empire covered nearly all of the current country of Mexico, extending down into other regions of Central America as well.

Population:

The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan on the western shore of Lake Texcoco flourished so that the city could boast at least 200,000 inhabitants by the early 16th century CE, making it the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas.

Town and town pattern:

The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan on the western shore of Lake Texcoco flourished so that the city could boast at least 200,000 inhabitants by the early 16th century CE, making it the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas.

 Tenochtitlan covered an area of eight square kilometers. The city was divided into four zones or campan, each campan was divided into 20 districts (calpullis), and each calpulli was crossed by streets or tlaxilcalli. There were three main streets that crossed the city and extended to firm land; Bernal Díaz del Castillo (1492–1584), author of The Conquest of New Spain, reported it was wide enough for ten horses. The calpullis were divided by channels used for transportation, with wood bridges that were removed at night. It was in trying to cross these channels that the Spaniards lost most of the gold they had acquired from Moctezuma.

In the center of the city were the public buildings, temples, and schools. Inside a walled square, 300 meters to a side, was the ceremonial center. There were about 45 public buildings, the Templo Mayor (main temple), the temple of Quetzalcoatl, the ball game, the tzompantlior rack of skulls, the temple of the sun, the platforms for the gladiatorial sacrifice, and some minor temples. Outside was the palace of Moctezuma, with 100 rooms, each one with its own bath, for the lords and ambassadors of allies and conquered people. Near also was the cuicalli or house of the songs, and the calmecac. The city had a great symmetry. All constructions had to be approved by the calmimilocatl, a functionary in charge of the city planning. No one could invade the streets and channels.

Social Structure and Government:

The inhabitants were divided into several social strata. At the top were local rulers (teteuhctin), then came nobles (pipiltin), commoners (macehualtin), serfs (mayeque), and finally slaves (tlacohtin). The strata seem to have been relatively fixed but there is some evidence of movement between them, especially in the lower classes.

he Aztec military had an equivalent to military service with a core of professional warriors. An Aztec became a pilli through his abilities in war. Only those that had taken prisoners could become full-time warriors, and eventually the honors and spoils of war would make them pillis.

 Once an Aztec warrior had captured 4 or 5 captives, he would be called tequiua and could attain a rank of Eagle or Jaguar Knight, sometimes translated as "captain," eventually he could reach the rank of tlacateccatl or tlachochcalli. 

To be elected as tlatoani, one was required to have taken about 17 captives in war. When Aztec boys attained adult age, they stopped cutting their hair until they took their first captive; sometimes two or three youths united to get their first captive; then they would be called iyac. 

If after certain time, usually three combats, they could not gain a captive, they became macehualli; it was shameful to be a warrior with long hair, indicating lack of captives; one would prefer to be a macehualli.

Slaves or tlacotin (distinct from war captives) also constituted an important class.  A slave could have possessions and even own other slaves. Slaves could buy their liberty, and slaves could be set free if they were able to show they had been mistreated or if they had children with or were married to their masters.

Religion:

Aztec religion was syncretistic, absorbing elements from many other Mesoamerican cultures. At base, it shared many of the cosmological beliefs of earlier peoples, notably the Maya, such as that the present earth was the last in a series of creations and that it occupied a position between systems of 13 heavens and 9 underworlds. Prominent in the Aztec pantheon were Huitzilopochtli, god of war; Tonatiuh, god of the sun; Tlaloc, god of rain; and Quetzalcóatl, the Feathered Serpent, who was part deity and part culture hero. Human sacrifice, particularly by offering a victim’s heart to Tonatiuh, was commonly practiced, as was bloodletting. Closely entwined with Aztec religion was the calendar, on which the elaborate round of rituals and ceremonies that occupied the priests was based. The Aztec calendar was the one common to much of Mesoamerica, and it comprised a solar year of 365 days and a sacred year of 260 days; the two yearly cycles running in parallel produced a larger cycle of 52 years.

Language:

Languages similar to the Aztec language have existed in Central Mexico for perhaps 1400 years.  As early as 600AD, languages known as Nahuan were spoken by peoples in the area.  It is believed that these language speakers came from the north in waves, settling in central Mexico.

Speakers of languages such as Nahuatl began to gain power, and by 1000AD (CE) it is likely that Nahuatl speakers were the dominant power.

One of the last Nahuatl speaking groups to come to the area was the Mexica, who would become a powerful force in the founding of the Aztec empire.

As the empire grew, so did the influence of Nahuatl (also called Classical Nahuatl, Mexicano or Aztec).  Naturally, those who wanted to get along with the powers-that-were needed to speak it.  It was a language of trade, and a language of prestige.  It was used in literature extensively.

Economic life:

The Aztecs traded everything, and it was an important part of their life, and their economy relied heavily on agriculture and farming. Aztec Farmers grew beans, squash, avocados, tobacco, hemp, and peppers but the most important crop was corn. In spite of their primitive ways and farming tools, Aztec farmers produced enough food to supply not only their own needs, but also those of the entire city, and this played a pivotal role in the economy and trade of the Aztec civilisations.

Aside from crops, the Aztecs market offers various goods and services, including everything you can think of. Raw materials, finished products, jewellery, wood and even medicine could be bought in this one stop shop, and the main gathering ground for the Aztecs. Their method of exchange was through tribute and trade. They bartered using different currencies. In Aztec times, the common currency was of course trade and bartering. The two most common way the Aztecs bartered was through the use of cocoa beans made into chocolate and cotton. The economy in Aztec life was essentially driven by this marketplace, the heart of the Aztec society.

Architecture and art:

The Aztecs were themselves appreciative of fine art and they collected pieces from across their empire to be brought back to Tenochtitlán and often ceremonially buried. Aztec artwas nothing if not eclectic and ranged from miniature engraved precious objects to massive stone temples. Monumental sculptures were a particular favourite and could be fearsome monstrosities such as the colossal Coatlicue statue or be very life-like such as the famous sculpture of a seated Xochipilli.

Collapse:

The Aztec empire, which controlled some 11,000,000 people, had always had to deal with minor rebellions - typically, when new rulers took power at Tenochtitlan - but these had always been swiftly crushed. The tide began to turn, though, when the Aztecs were heavily defeated by the Tlaxcala and Huexotzingo in 1515 CE.  With the arrival of the Spanish, some of these rebel states would again seize the opportunity to gain their independence. When the conquistadors finally did arrive from the Old World sailing their floating palaces and led by Hernán Cortés, their initial relations with the leader of the Aztecs, Motecuhzoma II, were friendly and valuable gifts were exchanged. Things turned sour, though, when a small group of Spanish soldiers were killed at Tenochtitlan while Cortés was away at Veracruz. The Aztec warriors, unhappy at Motecuhzoma's passivity, overthrew him and set Cuitlahuac as the new tlatoani. This incident was just what Cortés needed and he returned to the city to relieve the besieged remaining Spanish but was forced to withdraw on the 30th of June 1520 CE in what became known as the Noche Triste. Gathering local allies Cortés returned ten months later and in 1521 CE he laid siege to the city. Lacking food and ravaged by disease, the Aztecs, now led by Cuauhtemoc, finally collapsed on the fateful day of 13th of August 1521 CE. Tenochtitlan was sacked and its monuments destroyed. From the ashes rose the new capital of the colony of New Spain and the long line of Mesoamerican civilizations which had stretched right back to the Olmec came to a dramatic and brutal end.